NATURAL APPROACH
The natural approach method wasdeveloped
by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It aims
to foster naturalistic language acquisition in a classroom setting, and to this
end it emphasises communication, and places decreased importance on
consciousgrammar study and explicit correction of student errors. Efforts
are also made to make the learning environment as stress-free as possible. In
the natural approach, language output is not forced, but allowed to emerge
spontaneously after students have attended to large amounts of comprehensible
language input.
The
natural approach has become closely associated with Krashen's monitor model,
and it is often seen as an application of the theory to language teaching.
Despite this perception, there are some differences, particularly Terrell's
view that some degree of conscious grammar study can be beneficial. The
syllabus focuses on activities which Terrell sees as promoting subconscious language
acquisition. He divides these activities into four main areas: content
activities, such as learning a new subject in the target language; activities
which focus on personalizing language, such as students sharing their favorite
music; games; and problem-solving activities.
THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
The grammar-translation
method is a method of teaching foreign languages derived from the classical (sometimes called
traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. In grammar-translation classes, students learn grammatical
rules and then apply those rules by translating
sentences between the target language and their native language. Advanced
students may be required to translate whole texts word-for-word. The method has two main goals: to enable
students to read and translate literature written in the target language, and
to further students’ general intellectual development.
There are two main goals to
grammar-translation classes. One is to develop students’ reading ability to a
level where they can read literature in the target language. The other is
to develop students’ general mental discipline. As V. Mallison put it:
The main
principles on which the grammar translation method is based are the following:
1.
Translation
interprets the words and phrases of the foreign languages in the best possible
manner.
2.
The phraseology and the idioms of the
target language can best be assimilated in the process of interpretation.
3.
The structures of the foreign languages are best learned when
compared and contrast with those of first language.
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
Total physical response (TPR)
is a language - teaching method developed
by James Asher, a professor emeritus of psychology at San
José State University. It is based on the coordination of language and physical
movement. In TPR, instructors give commands to students in the target language,
and students respond with whole-body actions.
The
method is an example of the comprehension approach to language
teaching. Listening serves a dual purpose; it is both a means of understanding
messages in the language being learned, and a means of learning the structure
of the language itself. Grammar is not taught explicitly, but is induced from
the language input.
Asher developed TPR as a result of his experiences observing young
children learning their first language. He noticed that interactions between
parents and children often took the form of speech from the parent followed by
a physical response from the child. Asher made three hypotheses based on his
observations: first, that language is learned primarily by listening; second,
that language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain; and
third, that learning language should not involve any stress.
THE DIRECT METHOD
The direct method of teaching, sometimes called the
natural method. Not limited to but often used in teaching foreign languages,
the method refrains from using the learners' native language and uses only the
target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900.
Characteristic features of the direct method are:
o
teaching concepts
and vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual
materials
o
teaching grammar
by using an inductive approach (i.e. having learners find out rules through the
presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language)
o
centrality of
spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation)
o
focus on
question-answer patterns.
Priciples:
1.
Classroom
instructions are conducted exclusively in the target language.
2.
Only everyday
vocabulary and sentences are taught during the initial phase; grammar, reading
and writing are introduced in intermediate phase.
3.
Oral communication
skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around
question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive
classes.
4.
Grammar is taught inductively.
5.
New teaching
points are introduced orally.
6.
Concrete
vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract
vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
7.
Both speech and
listening comprehensions are taught.
8.
Correct
pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
9.
Student should be
speaking approximately 80% of the time during the lesson.
10.
Students are
taught from inception to ask questions as well as answer them.
SUGGESTOPEDIA
Suggestopedia (USA
English) or Suggestopaedia (UK English) is a teaching method
developed by the Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It is used in
different fields, but mostly in the field of foreign language learning. Lozanov
has claimed that by using this method a teacher's students can learn a language
approximately three to five times as quickly as through conventional teaching
methods.
Suggestopedia has been called a "pseudo-science". It strongly depends on the trust that students develop towards the method by simply believing that it works.
The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as the method improved, it has focused more on “desuggestive learning” and now is often called “desuggestopedia.” Suggestopedia is a portmanteau of the words “suggestion” and “pedagogy". A common misconception is to link "suggestion" to "hypnosis". However, Lozanov intended it in the sense of offering or proposing, emphasising student choice.
Suggestopedia has been called a "pseudo-science". It strongly depends on the trust that students develop towards the method by simply believing that it works.
The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as the method improved, it has focused more on “desuggestive learning” and now is often called “desuggestopedia.” Suggestopedia is a portmanteau of the words “suggestion” and “pedagogy". A common misconception is to link "suggestion" to "hypnosis". However, Lozanov intended it in the sense of offering or proposing, emphasising student choice.
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
1.
An emphasis on
learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
2.
The introduction
of authentic texts into the learning situation.
3.
The provision of
opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the
learning process itself.
4.
An enhancement of
the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to
classroom learning.
5.
An attempt to link
classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.
These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that
they are very interested in the needs and desires of their learners as well as
the connection between the language as it is taught in their class and as it
used outside the classroom. Under this broad umbrella definition, any teaching
practice that helps students develop their communicative competence in an
authentic context is deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of instruction.
Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair and group work
requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluency-based
activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in
which students practise and develop language functions, as well as judicious
use of grammar and pronunciation focused activities.
In the mid 1990s the Dogma 95 manifesto influenced language teaching
through the Dogme language teaching movement, who proposed that published
materials can stifle the communicative approach. As such the aim of the Dogme
approach to language teaching is to focus on real conversations about real
subjects so that communication is the engine of learning. This communication
may lead to explanation, but that this in turn will lead to further
communication.
AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
This
approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the
direct method. Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that
students be taught a language directly, without using the students' native
language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However,
unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method didn’t focus on teaching
vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.
Applied to language instruction, and often within the context of the language lab, this means that the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction—everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing that will result in a student receiving negative feedback.
Applied to language instruction, and often within the context of the language lab, this means that the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction—everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing that will result in a student receiving negative feedback.
SILENT WAY
The method emphasises the autonomy of the learner; the teacher's role is to monitor the students' efforts, and the students are encouraged to have an active role in learning the language. Pronunciation is seen as fundamental; beginning students start their study with pronunciation, and much time is spent practising it each lesson. The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus, and structures are constantly reviewed and recycled. The choice of vocabulary is important, with functional and versatile words seen as the best. Translation and rote repetition are avoided and the language is usually practiced in meaningful contexts. Evaluation is carried out by observation, and the teacher may never set a formal test.
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